SARS-CoV-2 and Coronavirus Disease 2019: What We Know So Far

By

 

Firas A. Rabi

mdpi.com

11 min

View Original

Cui, J.; Li, F.; Shi, Z.-L. Origin and evolution of pathogenic coronaviruses. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 2019, 17, 181–192. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Zhou, P.; Fan, H.; Lan, T.; Yang, X.-L.; Shi, W.-F.; Zhang, W.; Zhu, Y.; Zhang, Y.-W.; Xie, Q.-M.; Mani, S.; et al. Fatal swine acute diarrhoea syndrome caused by an HKU2-related coronavirus of bat origin. Nature 2018, 556, 255–258. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Zhou, P.; Yang, X.-L.; Wang, X.-G.; Hu, B.; Zhang, L.; Zhang, W.; Si, H.-R.; Zhu, Y.; Li, B.; Huang, C.-L.; et al. A pneumonia outbreak associated with a new coronavirus of probable bat origin. Nature 2020, 579, 270–273. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Gorbalenya, A.E.; Baker, S.C.; Baric, R.S.; de Groot, R.J.; Drosten, C.; Gulyaeva, A.A.; Haagmans, B.L.; Lauber, C.; Leontovich, A.M.; Neuman, B.W.; et al. Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus: The species and its viruses—A statement of the Coronavirus Study Group. Microbiology 2020. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Zhu, N.; Zhang, D.; Wang, W.; Li, X.; Yang, B.; Song, J.; Zhao, X.; Huang, B.; Shi, W.; Lu, R.; et al. A Novel Coronavirus from Patients with Pneumonia in China, 2019. N. Engl. J. Med. 2020, 382, 727–733. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Lu, H.; Stratton, C.W.; Tang, Y. Outbreak of pneumonia of unknown etiology in Wuhan, China: The mystery and the miracle. J. Med. Virol. 2020, 92, 401–402. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Chen, N.; Zhou, M.; Dong, X.; Qu, J.; Gong, F.; Han, Y.; Qiu, Y.; Wang, J.; Liu, Y.; Wei, Y.; et al. Epidemiological and clinical characteristics of 99 cases of 2019 novel coronavirus pneumonia in Wuhan, China: A descriptive study. Lancet 2020, 395, 507–513. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Huang, C.; Wang, Y.; Li, X.; Ren, L.; Zhao, J.; Hu, Y.; Zhang, L.; Fan, G.; Xu, J.; Gu, X.; et al. Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China. Lancet 2020, 395, 497–506. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Tan, W.; Zhao, X.; Ma, X.; Wang, W.; Niu, P.; Xu, W.; Gao, G.F.; Wu, G. A Novel Coronavirus Genome Identified in a Cluster of Pneumonia Cases—Wuhan, China 2019−2020. China CDC Wkly. 2020, 2, 61–62. [Google Scholar]

Johns Hopkins University Coronavirus COVID-19 (2019-nCoV). Available online: https://gisanddata.maps.arcgis.com/apps/opsdashboard/index.html#/bda7594740fd40299423467b48e9ecf6 (accessed on 25 February 2020).

China CDC Weekly. Available online: http://weekly.chinacdc.cn/news/TrackingtheEpidemic.htm (accessed on 25 February 2020).

Worldometer: Coronavirus Update (Live). Available online: https://www.worldometers.info/coronavirus/ (accessed on 25 February 2020).

Klassen, D. Updated COVID-19 Statistics. Available online: https://nucleuswealth.com/articles/updated-coronavirus-statistics-cases-deaths-mortality-rate/ (accessed on 3 March 2020).

Fan, Y.; Zhao, K.; Shi, Z.-L.; Zhou, P. Bat Coronaviruses in China. Viruses 2019, 11, 210. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Cyranoski, D. Did pangolins spread the China coronavirus to people? Nature 2020. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Ksiazek, T.G.; Erdman, D.; Goldsmith, C.S.; Zaki, S.R.; Peret, T.; Emery, S.; Tong, S.; Urbani, C.; Comer, J.A.; Lim, W.; et al. A Novel Coronavirus Associated with Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome. N. Engl. J. Med. 2003, 348, 1953–1966. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Andersen, K.; Rambaut, A.; Lipkin, W.I.; Holmes, E.C.; Garry, R.F. The Proximal Origin of SARS-CoV-2. Available online: http://virological.org/t/the-proximal-origin-of-sars-cov-2/398 (accessed on 25 February 2020).

Kuba, K.; Imai, Y.; Rao, S.; Gao, H.; Guo, F.; Guan, B.; Huan, Y.; Yang, P.; Zhang, Y.; Deng, W.; et al. A crucial role of angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) in SARS coronavirus–induced lung injury. Nat. Med. 2005, 11, 875–879. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Glowacka, I.; Bertram, S.; Muller, M.A.; Allen, P.; Soilleux, E.; Pfefferle, S.; Steffen, I.; Tsegaye, T.S.; He, Y.; Gnirss, K.; et al. Evidence that TMPRSS2 Activates the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus Spike Protein for Membrane Fusion and Reduces Viral Control by the Humoral Immune Response. J. Virol. 2011, 85, 4122–4134. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Heurich, A.; Hofmann-Winkler, H.; Gierer, S.; Liepold, T.; Jahn, O.; Pohlmann, S. TMPRSS2 and ADAM17 Cleave ACE2 Differentially and Only Proteolysis by TMPRSS2 Augments Entry Driven by the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus Spike Protein. J. Virol. 2014, 88, 1293–1307. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Shulla, A.; Heald-Sargent, T.; Subramanya, G.; Zhao, J.; Perlman, S.; Gallagher, T. A Transmembrane Serine Protease Is Linked to the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus Receptor and Activates Virus Entry. J. Virol. 2011, 85, 873–882. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Zhou, P.; Yang, X.-L.; Wang, X.-G.; Hu, B.; Zhang, L.; Zhang, W.; Si, H.-R.; Zhu, Y.; Li, B.; Huang, C.-L.; et al. Discovery of a novel coronavirus associated with the recent pneumonia outbreak in humans and its potential bat origin. Microbiology 2020. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

The Epidemiological Characteristics of an Outbreak of 2019 Novel Coronavirus Diseases (COVID-19)—China 2020. Available online: http://weekly.chinacdc.cn/en/article/id/e53946e2-c6c4-41e9-9a9b-fea8db1a8f51 (accessed on 25 February 2020).

PM Abe Asks All of Japan Schools to Close Over coronavirus. Reuters. 2020. Available online: https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-health-japan-idUSKCN20L0BI (accessed on 27 February 2020).

CNN World; Yeung, J.; Marsh, J.; Kottasová, I.; Vera, A. March 15 Coronavirus News. Available online: https://www.cnn.com/world/live-news/coronavirus-outbreak-2-03-15-20-intl-hnk/index.html (accessed on 16 March 2020).

CDC Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)—Resources for K-12 Schools and Childcare Programs. Available online: https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/community/schools-childcare/index.html (accessed on 16 March 2020).

Delamater, P.L.; Street, E.J.; Leslie, T.F.; Yang, Y.T.; Jacobsen, K.H. Complexity of the Basic Reproduction Number (R0). Emerg. Infect. Dis. J. 2019, 25. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Zhao, S.; Lin, Q.; Ran, J.; Musa, S.S.; Yang, G.; Wang, W.; Lou, Y.; Gao, D.; Yang, L.; He, D.; et al. Preliminary estimation of the basic reproduction number of novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) in China, from 2019 to 2020: A data-driven analysis in the early phase of the outbreak. Int. J. Infect. Dis. 2020, 92, 214–217. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

WHO. Novel Coronavirus—China. Available online: http://www.who.int/csr/don/12-january-2020-novel-coronavirus-china/en/ (accessed on 25 February 2020).

CDC Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19). Available online: https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/about/transmission.html (accessed on 3 March 2020).

Guerra, F.M.; Bolotin, S.; Lim, G.; Heffernan, J.; Deeks, S.L.; Li, Y.; Crowcroft, N.S. The basic reproduction number (R0) of measles: A systematic review. Lancet Infect. Dis. 2017, 17, e420–e428. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Marangi, L.; Mirinaviciute, G.; Flem, E.; Tomba, G.S.; Guzzetta, G.; Blasio, B.F.; de Manfredi, P. The natural history of varicella zoster virus infection in Norway: Further insights on exogenous boosting and progressive immunity to herpes zoster. PLoS ONE 2017, 12, e0176845. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Kampf, G.; Todt, D.; Pfaender, S.; Steinmann, E. Persistence of coronaviruses on inanimate surfaces and their inactivation with biocidal agents. J. Hosp. Infect. 2020, 104, 246–251. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]

van Doremalen, N.; Bushmaker, T.; Karesh, W.B.; Munster, V.J. Stability of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus in milk. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2014, 20, 1263–1264. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Warnes, S.L.; Little, Z.R.; Keevil, C.W. Human Coronavirus 229E Remains Infectious on Common Touch Surface Materials. mBio 2015, 6, e01697-15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Zou, L.; Ruan, F.; Huang, M.; Liang, L.; Huang, H.; Hong, Z.; Yu, J.; Kang, M.; Song, Y.; Xia, J.; et al. SARS-CoV-2 Viral Load in Upper Respiratory Specimens of Infected Patients. N. Engl. J. Med. 2020. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Li, Q.; Guan, X.; Wu, P.; Wang, X.; Zhou, L.; Tong, Y.; Ren, R.; Leung, K.S.M.; Lau, E.H.Y.; Wong, J.Y.; et al. Early Transmission Dynamics in Wuhan, China, of Novel Coronavirus–Infected Pneumonia. N. Engl. J. Med. 2020. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Guan, W.; Ni, Z.; Hu, Y.; Liang, W.; Ou, C.; He, J.; Liu, L.; Shan, H.; Lei, C.; Hui, D.S.; et al. Clinical characteristics of 2019 novel coronavirus infection in China. Respir. Med. 2020. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Backer, J.A.; Klinkenberg, D.; Wallinga, J. Incubation period of 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) infections among travellers from Wuhan, China, 20–28 January 2020. Eurosurveillance 2020, 25, 2000062. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Bai, Y.; Yao, L.; Wei, T.; Tian, F.; Jin, D.-Y.; Chen, L.; Wang, M. Presumed Asymptomatic Carrier Transmission of COVID-19. JAMA 2020. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Rothe, C.; Schunk, M.; Sothmann, P.; Bretzel, G.; Froeschl, G.; Wallrauch, C.; Zimmer, T.; Thiel, V.; Janke, C.; Guggemos, W.; et al. Transmission of 2019-nCoV Infection from an Asymptomatic Contact in Germany. N. Engl. J. Med. 2020. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Lipsitch, M.; Swerdlow, D.L.; Finelli, L. Defining the Epidemiology of Covid-19—Studies Needed. N. Engl. J. Med. 2020. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Zhao, Y.; Zhao, Z.; Wang, Y.; Zhou, Y.; Ma, Y.; Zuo, W. Single-cell RNA expression profiling of ACE2, the putative receptor of Wuhan 2019-nCov. Bioinformatics 2020. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Cai, G. Tobacco-Use Disparity in Gene Expression of ACE2, the Receptor of 2019-nCov. Life Sci. 2020. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Liu, S.; Zhang, M.; Yang, L.; Li, Y.; Wang, L.; Huang, Z.; Wang, L.; Chen, Z.; Zhou, M. Prevalence and patterns of tobacco smoking among Chinese adult men and women: Findings of the 2010 national smoking survey. J. Epidemiol. Community Health 2017, 71, 154–161. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Wei, M.; Yuan, J.; Liu, Y.; Fu, T.; Yu, X.; Zhang, Z.-J. Novel Coronavirus Infection in Hospitalized Infants Under 1 Year of Age in China. JAMA 2020. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Wax, R.S.; Christian, M.D. Practical recommendations for critical care and anesthesiology teams caring for novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) patients. Can. J. Anesth. Can. Anesth. 2020. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Chu, C.M. Role of lopinavir/ritonavir in the treatment of SARS: Initial virological and clinical findings. Thorax 2004, 59, 252–256. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Sheahan, T.P.; Sims, A.C.; Graham, R.L.; Menachery, V.D.; Gralinski, L.E.; Case, J.B.; Leist, S.R.; Pyrc, K.; Feng, J.Y.; Trantcheva, I.; et al. Broad-spectrum antiviral GS-5734 inhibits both epidemic and zoonotic coronaviruses. Sci. Transl. Med. 2017, 9, eaal3653. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Mulangu, S.; Dodd, L.E.; Davey, R.T.; Tshiani Mbaya, O.; Proschan, M.; Mukadi, D.; Lusakibanza Manzo, M.; Nzolo, D.; Tshomba Oloma, A.; Ibanda, A.; et al. A Randomized, Controlled Trial of Ebola Virus Disease Therapeutics. N. Engl. J. Med. 2019, 381, 2293–2303. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Wang, M.; Cao, R.; Zhang, L.; Yang, X.; Liu, J.; Xu, M.; Shi, Z.; Hu, Z.; Zhong, W.; Xiao, G. Remdesivir and chloroquine effectively inhibit the recently emerged novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) in vitro. Cell Res. 2020, 30, 269–271. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Holshue, M.L.; DeBolt, C.; Lindquist, S.; Lofy, K.H.; Wiesman, J.; Bruce, H.; Spitters, C.; Ericson, K.; Wilkerson, S.; Tural, A.; et al. First Case of 2019 Novel Coronavirus in the United States. N. Engl. J. Med. 2020. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]

NIH (National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases). NIH Clinical Trial of Remdesivir to Treat COVID-19 Begins. Available online: https://www.niaid.nih.gov/news-events/nih-clinical-trial-remdesivir-treat-covid-19-begins (accessed on 27 February 2020).

Vincent, M.J.; Bergeron, E.; Benjannet, S.; Erickson, B.R.; Rollin, P.E.; Ksiazek, T.G.; Seidah, N.G.; Nichol, S.T. Chloroquine is a potent inhibitor of SARS coronavirus infection and spread. Virol. J. 2005, 2, 69. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Zhou, Y.; Vedantham, P.; Lu, K.; Agudelo, J.; Carrion, R.; Nunneley, J.W.; Barnard, D.; Pöhlmann, S.; McKerrow, J.H.; Renslo, A.R.; et al. Protease inhibitors targeting coronavirus and filovirus entry. Antiviral Res. 2015, 116, 76–84. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Yamawaki, H.; Futagami, S.; Kaneko, K.; Agawa, S.; Higuchi, K.; Murakami, M.; Wakabayashi, M.; Sakasegawa, N.; Kodaka, Y.; Ueki, N.; et al. Camostat Mesilate, Pancrelipase, and Rabeprazole Combination Therapy Improves Epigastric Pain in Early Chronic Pancreatitis and Functional Dyspepsia with Pancreatic Enzyme Abnormalities. Digestion 2019, 99, 283–292. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Ramsey, M.L.; Nuttall, J.; Hart, P.A. TACTIC Investigative Team a phase 1/2 trial to evaluate the pharmacokinetics, safety, and efficacy of NI-03 in patients with chronic pancreatitis: Study protocol for a randomized controlled trial on the assessment of camostat treatment in chronic pancreatitis (TACTIC). Trials 2019, 20, 501. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]

Hoffmann, M.; Kleine-Weber, H.; Krüger, N.; Müller, M.; Drosten, C.; Pöhlmann, S. The novel coronavirus 2019 (2019-nCoV) uses the SARS-coronavirus receptor ACE2 and the cellular protease TMPRSS2 for entry into target cells. bioRxiv 2020. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Kraft, C.S.; Hewlett, A.L.; Koepsell, S.; Winkler, A.M.; Kratochvil, C.J.; Larson, L.; Varkey, J.B.; Mehta, A.K.; Lyon, G.M.; Friedman-Moraco, R.J.; et al. The Use of TKM-100802 and Convalescent Plasma in 2 Patients with Ebola Virus Disease in the United States. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2015, 61, 496–502. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Walker, L.M.; Burton, D.R. Passive immunotherapy of viral infections: “super-antibodies” enter the fray. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 2018, 18, 297–308. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Wong, S.K.; Li, W.; Moore, M.J.; Choe, H.; Farzan, M. A 193-Amino Acid Fragment of the SARS Coronavirus S Protein Efficiently Binds Angiotensin-converting Enzyme 2. J. Biol. Chem. 2004, 279, 3197–3201. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Li, W.; Moore, M.J.; Vasilieva, N.; Sui, J.; Wong, S.K.; Berne, M.A.; Somasundaran, M.; Sullivan, J.L.; Luzuriaga, K.; Greenough, T.C.; et al. Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 is a functional receptor for the SARS coronavirus. Nature 2003, 426, 450–454. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Elshabrawy, H.A.; Coughlin, M.M.; Baker, S.C.; Prabhakar, B.S. Human Monoclonal Antibodies against Highly Conserved HR1 and HR2 Domains of the SARS-CoV Spike Protein Are More Broadly Neutralizing. PLoS ONE 2012, 7, e50366. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Arbabi-Ghahroudi, M. Camelid Single-Domain Antibodies: Historical Perspective and Future Outlook. Front. Immunol. 2017, 8, 1589. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Moore, M.J.; Dorfman, T.; Li, W.; Wong, S.K.; Li, Y.; Kuhn, J.H.; Coderre, J.; Vasilieva, N.; Han, Z.; Greenough, T.C.; et al. Retroviruses Pseudotyped with the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus Spike Protein Efficiently Infect Cells Expressing Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme 2. J. Virol. 2004, 78, 10628–10635. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Imai, Y.; Kuba, K.; Rao, S.; Huan, Y.; Guo, F.; Guan, B.; Yang, P.; Sarao, R.; Wada, T.; Leong-Poi, H.; et al. Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 protects from severe acute lung failure. Nature 2005, 436, 112–116. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Reilly, J.; Calfee, C.; Christie, J. Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome Phenotypes. Semin. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 2019, 40, 019–030. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Khan, A.; Benthin, C.; Zeno, B.; Albertson, T.E.; Boyd, J.; Christie, J.D.; Hall, R.; Poirier, G.; Ronco, J.J.; Tidswell, M.; et al. A pilot clinical trial of recombinant human angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 in acute respiratory distress syndrome. Crit. Care 2017, 21, 234. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Maxmen, A. More than 80 clinical trials launch to test coronavirus treatments. Nature 2020, 578, 347–348. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Wrapp, D.; Wang, N.; Corbett, K.S.; Goldsmith, J.A.; Hsieh, C.-L.; Abiona, O.; Graham, B.S.; McLellan, J.S. Cryo-EM structure of the 2019-nCoV spike in the prefusion conformation. Science 2020, 367, 1260–1263. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Wolff, J.A.; Malone, R.W.; Williams, P.; Chong, W.; Acsadi, G.; Jani, A.; Felgner, P.L. Direct gene transfer into mouse muscle in vivo. Science 1990, 247, 1465–1468. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Sahin, U.; Karikó, K.; Türeci, Ö. mRNA-based therapeutics—Developing a new class of drugs. Nat. Rev. Drug Discov. 2014, 13, 759–780. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Sahin, U.; Derhovanessian, E.; Miller, M.; Kloke, B.-P.; Simon, P.; Löwer, M.; Bukur, V.; Tadmor, A.D.; Luxemburger, U.; Schrörs, B.; et al. Personalized RNA mutanome vaccines mobilize poly-specific therapeutic immunity against cancer. Nature 2017, 547, 222–226. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Sebastian, M.; Schröder, A.; Scheel, B.; Hong, H.S.; Muth, A.; von Boehmer, L.; Zippelius, A.; Mayer, F.; Reck, M.; Atanackovic, D.; et al. A phase I/IIa study of the mRNA-based cancer immunotherapy CV9201 in patients with stage IIIB/IV non-small cell lung cancer. Cancer Immunol. Immunother. CII 2019, 68, 799–812. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Diken, M.; Kranz, L.M.; Kreiter, S.; Sahin, U. mRNA: A Versatile Molecule for Cancer Vaccines. Curr. Issues Mol. Biol. 2017, 22, 113–128. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]

Safety and Immunogenicity Study of 2019-nCov Vaccine (mRNA-1273) to Treat Novel Coronavirus—Full Text View—ClinicalTrials.gov. Available online: https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04283461 (accessed on 27 February 2020).

Просмотры: